Tuesday, August 6, 2019
The Insanity Defense Essay Example for Free
The Insanity Defense Essay The Insanity Defense is perhaps one of the most controversial issues in the legal world. It has become a favorite topic of critics for so long since issues regarding insanity defenses hold to be very sensitive. This paper will specifically discuss how the insanity defense works, what its effects are and how and why it has become controversial to many people.            Before we delve deeper into the topic, let us first clearly define what an insanity defense is. Insanity defense typically â€Å"refers to a plea that defendants are not guilty because they lacked the mental capacity to realize that they committed a wrong or appreciate why it was wrong†(Martin, 1998). Today, most states define insanity as a â€Å"mental impairment that impedes a person’s ability to understand the wrongfulness of his or her act (the cognitive prong). A number of states also permit a defense when the disability impairs the person’s ability to control the act (the volitional prong)†(Slobagin, 1998). However one defines the insanity defense, it has always remained controversial because it allows those who committed a heinous crime get away from criminal punishments.            The defense of insanity is â€Å"based on the premise that those who are unable to control their actions or appreciate the criminality of their actions due to mental defect or illness should not be punished under criminal law†(Dreisbach, 2006). The insanity defense is a legal test of criminal responsibility and it does not follow that it conforms to the medical definition of mental illness. Though controversies have been thrown regarding the insanity defense, it is rarely used and rarely successful as well.            Since the insanity defense is not intended to be a medical definition of a mental incapacity, loads of controversies and criticisms have arisen over the legal criteria that courts should apply in determining whether a person should be acquitted on the basis of insanity. In terms of legalities, it is believed that courts have a lot to work on to assure the credibility of an insanity defense.            But how did the insanity defense started? The guidelines for evaluating the criminal responsibility for defendants claiming to be insane were codified in the British courts in the case of Daniel M’Naughten in 1843. A 1995 Frontline Article goes back to how the M’Naughten rule started: â€Å"M’Naughten was a Scottish woodcutter who murdered the secretary to the prime minister, Sir Robert Peel, in a botched attempt to assassinate the prime minister himself. M’Naughten apparently believed that the prime minister was the architect of the myriad of personal and financial misfortunes that had befallen him. During his trial, nine witnesses testified to the fact that he was insane, and the jury acquitted him, finding him ‘not guilty by reason of insanity’†.            The queen was never pleased with the outcome, thus she asked the House of Lords to review the verdict with a panel of judges. The judges eventually reversed the verdict of the jury, and the formulation that emerged from their review states that: â€Å"a defendant should not be held responsible for his actions if he could not tell that his actions were wrong at the time he committed them†. This became the basis of the law governing legal responsibility in cases of insanity in England. The American courts and legislatures embraced this rule for more than a hundred years with almost no modification, until the 20th century when much criticism was already thrown at the courts.            During the 1950’s, a growing dissatisfaction of the M’Naughten test emerged. It was not just criticized in the legal circle but in the psychiatric circle as well. According to one 1995 Frontline article issue, one of the major criticisms of the M’Naughten rule is that â€Å"in its focus on the cognitive ability to know right from wrong, it fails to take into consideration the issue of control†. Psychiatrists agreed that it is indeed possible to understand that one’s behavior is wrong, but still be unable to stop oneself. To address this, the M’Naughter test was modified by some states with an ‘irresistible impulse’ provision, which â€Å"absolves a defendant who can distinguish right and wrong but is nonetheless unable to stop himself from committing an act he knows to be wrong†.            The Supreme Court has taken extra precautions in the proceedings in this area, with its few relevant decisions only indirectly addressing the proper formulation of the test for insanity. â€Å"Further evidence that the Court may not find the insanity defense to be an essential aspect of criminal liability comes from its treatment of the burden of proof relating to the defense†(Slobogin, 1998). The state may require the defendant to prove insanity beyond a reasonable doubt. According to Slobogin, â€Å"the prosecution must prove beyond a reasonable doubt every fact necessary to constitute proof of the crime with which the defendant is charged.†           In as far as law is concerned, does insanity defense really have a legitimate role? Hooper and McLearen (2002) state that: â€Å"Outside of assisting in sentencing, there are two places for mental disease in the legal system. The first is a defendant’s ability to understand the trial process. People who do not understand the nature of the charges or the functioning of the legal system are considered unfit for trial. More germane to this article, if mental illness had a direct effect on a given criminal act, an individual can be found legally insane.†           The concept of insanity has change over time but the basic notion of this is that there are individuals by virtue of mental conditions have no understanding or control with their unlawful behaviors. However, the presence of a mental illness will not necessarily predict a successful insanity finding.            Later on, the American Law Institute (ALI) promulgated a Model Penal Code that included a two-pronged provision for insanity. The ALI states that â€Å"an individual is not responsible for criminal conduct if, at the time of such conduct as a result of a mental disease of defect he lacks substantial capacity either to appreciate the criminality (wrongfulness) of his conduct or to conform his conduct to the requirements of the law†(Hooper and McLearen, 2002).            The American Law Institute was a significant softening of the M’Naughten standard. Frontline explains that â€Å"instead of requiring a defendant to have no understanding whatsoever of the nature of his acts or the difference between right and wrong, the ALI standard requires merely the person lacks a ‘substantial capacity’ to understand the right from wrong†. The ALI generally expands the M’Naughten rule to include an ‘irresistible impulse’ component. The ALI standard also excludes defendants whose mental illness, defect or incapacity only manifest itself in criminal or antisocial conduct, thus addressing the conundrum of the serial killer whose only symptom of a mental illness is the killing of his victims.            A popular example of a case in insanity defense is when John Hinckley Jr. shot the then US President Ronald Reagan and other Presidential officers in 1981. Hinckley claimed that he was trying to impress the actress Jodie Foster, with whom he felt he was infatuated. He later described the incident in a letter to The New York Times as â€Å"the greatest love offering in the history of the world†¦ At one time Miss Foster was a star and I was the insignificant fan. Now everything is changed. I am Napoleon and she is Josephine. I am Romeo and she is Juliet.†           A jury acquitted Hinckley of 13 assault, murder and weapon counts, finding him not guilty by reason of insanity. This triggered a public outcry against what many perceived to be a loophole in the justice system that allowed an obviously guilty man to escape punishment. Because of the acquittal, widespread calls for the abolishment, or at least the substantial revision of the insanity-plea laws ensued.            Due to the incessant public outrage, the members of the Congress then responded to this by introducing 26 separate pieces of legislation designed to abolish or modify the insanity defense. All the new proposals were aimed at creating a stricter federal standard that would avoid acquittals like that of Hinckley. The Hinckley verdict introduced ways to make it more difficult to sustain an insanity plea.            The insanity defense has always been a complex topic and a lot of academic and scholarly works have been devoted entirely to explain its nuances. Learnmore lays down some major points of interest: Despite popular perceptions to the contrary, defendants rarely enter pleas of â€Å"not guilty by reason of insanity†. On the few occasions that the defendant does raise it, judges and jurors rarely support it. Neither the legal system nor psychiatrists can agree on a single meaning of insanity in the criminal law context. Various definitions have been employed, making the insanity defense more controversial to people. Defendants found not guilty by reason of insanity are not automatically set free. They are usually confined to a mental institution, and not released until their sanity is established. These defendants can spend more time in a mental institution than they would have spent in prison had they been convicted. An insanity defense normally rests on the testimony of a psychiatrist, who testifies for the defendant after examining him and his past history, and the facts of the case. Courts appoint psychiatrists at government expense to assist poor defendants who cannot afford to hire their own psychiatrists. There is no wonder that the insanity defense has held a lot of controversies. With its very perplex nature, there are always rooms for loopholes. For instance, how can one actually measure the authenticity of the â€Å"guilty by reason of insanity†plea? If one pleads that he is insane at the time of trial, how can one be sure that his testimonies are plausible enough to free him from guilt or give a lighter verdict? Could an insanity defense be the perfect step to take to get away from a serious crime that has been committed? Why cannot we have a unified definition of insanity? Why do requirements vary in a number of states? These and a lot more questions with regard to insanity defense are still left unanswered. Currently, the requirements for insanity vary by state. The typical standards require that â€Å"a person be unable to differentiate between right and wrong at the time of the crime. The inability to appreciate the wrongfulness of conduct must be the direct result of a mental disease or defect†(Hooper and McLearen, 2002). This requirement actually leaves me to ponder on a certain things. If the person is legally insane at the time of the crime, how can the legal system be assured of a legally insane person’s testimonies if the person has a mental disease or defect? Can the legal system assure the people that the insanity defense was not widely misused? Due to the controversies being linked to insanity defense, there have been wide attempts to eliminate the loopholes of the system and thereby force mentally ill individuals into prison. â€Å"Some state decisions have noted that criminal intent is an absolute necessary part of any crime†(Hooper and McLearen, 2002). So it is just right that the laws should be more focused on the guilty mind. Under these laws, a person must, as a result of a mental illness, lack the ability to willingly or knowingly commit and act. This looks more at criminal intent rather than psychiatric diagnoses, therefore claiming an end to criminals getting off free. There have been states who have omitted the insanity defense entirely, instead allowing mental state to be raised only as a mitigating factor. But insanity defenses are not always successful. Only a handful of insanity defense cases have won acquittal. Though the percentage of winning an insanity defense is low, it is still likely to hold controversies. Critics have argued that â€Å"some defendants misuse it, effectively faking insanity to acquittals or less severe convictions†(Martin, 1998). Oftentimes, trials involving insanity defense get the most attention because the crimes involved in such cases are extremely bizarre. The standard for insanity defense gets periodic reviews especially after a verdict that the public finds shocking. Laws have been passed to have stricter standards for insanity defenses. â€Å"Instead of requiring prosecutors to prove a defendant’s sanity, defense attorneys now carry the burden of persuading a judge or a jury of the client’s insanity†(Martin, 1998). Martin further explains that some states have also adopted a tougher and stricter release system. Such changes in Connecticut doubled the average term acquitted defendants spend committed in institutions. This system unsurprisingly caused the number of insanity pleas to drop. With stricter standards and stricter release systems, insanity pleas have seriously dropped. Can this be considered a coincidence or a mere manifestation that previous insanity pleas were actually just faked? If because of stricter standards and tougher release systems a number of insanity pleas dropped, cannot all states impose similar standards and systems? If this will answer the endless controversies that are being associated with insanity defenses, then probably it is already high time that states take a look at their insanity defenses standards and make abrupt revisions. A person who has made criminal acts should not just easily escape by means of an insanity defense. The person just leaves room for the people to doubt the system and make outrageous cries to give enough justice to the victim of the so-called â€Å"insane†person. The insanity defense for me is just an available excuse for an accused person to be absolved from his or her criminal responsibility for his or her conduct. The rules for insanity defense had been made flexible depending on the weight of the situation and the reaction f the public. For an insanity defense to be made an excuse in having been committed a serious crime is a total ridicule for me. For if one lacks the capacity to know what is right from wrong, then how can a person actually know if he is actually insane? How can he be so sure that he was insane at the time that the crime was committed? Had there been any development in insanity defense law? The introduction of the â€Å"guilty but mentally ill†verdict in many states is considered the biggest development in the insanity defense law. Frontline explains that a defendant who receives a â€Å"guilty but mentally ill†verdict is still considered legally guilty of the crime in question, but since the defendant is mentally ill, the defendant is entitled to receive mental health treatment while institutionalized. If symptoms remit, however, the defendant is required to serve out the remainder of his sentence in a regular correctional facility, unlike a defendant who was acquitted by reason of insanity, who must be released if it is determined he is no longer dangerous to himself or others. In cases of an insanity defense, it is just right and proper that both the rights of the victim and the defendant who pleads to be insane must be protected. However one puts it, a crime has still been done regardless of one’s mental state. If indeed proven that the defendant is mentally defective or ill at the time of the crime, then proper steps must be taken into account. The verdict may be less severe that what a sane person might get, but proper medications for the defendant must be seriously followed before he gets more destructive to others and to himself. At this point, I am asking myself, why are there insanity pleas? Perhaps, it is the real situation. Perhaps the defendant is really not in a normal mental state at the time the crime happened. But how could the defendant actually defend himself given his mental incapacity to know what is right or wrong? And perhaps, just maybe, if there are no other good defenses to get a person out of a seriously committed crime, then insanity pleads might just be the solution. Perhaps it is making some sense. Insanity pleads have lowered down in number after stricter standards and systems. With both parties that should be considered for this law, emotions and judgmental instincts of people should not really get in the way. This is one serious problem that needs to be addressed and a procedural and logical system must take place to protect the rights of all parties involved. Progresses have been done and I certainly hope that there will come a time that the insanity defense would no longer hold controversies because justice has been served – both for the victim and the defendant. REFERENCES Dreisbach, Daniel L. Criminal Law. Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006 [DVD]. Redmond, WA:       Microsoft Corporation, 2005. Insanity as a criminal defense. Retrieved December 9, 2007, from      http://www.theblanchlawfirm.com/NewsDetails-36/Insanity+as+a+Criminal+      Defense.html?newsid=38 A crime of insanity. Retrieved December 9, 2007, from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/       Pages/frontline/shows/crime/trial/history.html#mn Slobogin, C. (1998). Insanity defense. Thomson Gale. Retrieved December 9, 2007, from       http://www.answers.com./topic/insanity-defense?cat=biz-fin Hooper, J., and McLearen, A. (2002, April). Does the insanity defense have a legitimate       role? [electronic version]. The Psychiatric times, 19 (4). Retrieved December 9, 2007,       from http://www.psychiatrictimes.cm/p020452.html Martin, J. (1998, February 2007). The insanity defense: a closer look [electronic version].       Washingto Post. Retrieved December 9, 2007 from http://www.washingtonpost.com/       wp-srv/local/longerm/aron/qa227.htm
Monday, August 5, 2019
Review of DNA and Protein Microarray for BioMEMS Technology
Review of DNA and Protein Microarray for BioMEMS Technology In recent years increase in genetically caused diseases is one of the major threat to mankind. Some of the genetically caused diseases are down syndrome, diabetes, obesity, sickle cell anemia, cystic fibrosis. This review paper explains how BioMEMS (Biological MicroElectroMechanicalSystem) technology used in microarrays and finding of gene expression which leads to medicine for particular diseases. BioMEMS research has been acquiring importance, due to the possibility of exploiting miniaturization to create new opportunities in medicine. BioMEMS systems in general have more diversity of materials and function than conventional MEMS devices. In BioMEMS ink-jet printing, photolithography techniques were introduced to deposit protein and DNA in array. DNA and protein micro-arrays based BioMEMS could be very extensively for rapid detection, drug discovery, and screening, especially when combined with integrated micro-fluidics and sensitive detection technologies. The techniques used to d efine patterns on semiconductor surfaces were utilized to construct arrays of single-stranded DNA. Once single strands of known sequences (capture probes) are placed at specific known sites on a chip surface, hybridization with molecules of unknown sequence (target probes) can reveal the sequence. Microarray-based gene expression profiling can be used to identify genes whose expression is changed in response to disease caused genetically by comparing gene expression in infected to that in uninfected cells or tissues. Protein and antibody arrays can play a key role in search for disease-specific proteins that have medical, diagnostic, prognostic, and commercial potential as disease markers or as drug targets and for determination of predisposition to specific disease via genotypic screening. Array-based integrated chips and micro-fluidics hold a great potential for the development of high-throughput approaches to systematically analyze these proteins and to assign a biological fun ction, determine protein-protein and protein-DNA interactions. This paper tells about varies applications of BioMEMS to detect the defective gene the causes diseases and the fabrication methods used in microarrays chip production. Keywords: LOC Lab-on-a-chip, BioMEMS (Biological MicroElectroMechanicalSystem), ÃŽÂ ¼TAS (Micro Total Analysis System), Oligonucleotide, Microdroplets , Electrospray. 1. Introduction Microarray technology has been applied to study of gene expression to study mechanisms of diseases and to accelerate the drug discovery process. There is a definite trend towards increasing the use of molecular diagnostic methods, and biochip technologies, along with bioinformatics techniques. Classification of human disease using microarrays is considered to be important. The emphasis is not only on diagnosis but also on disease management, including monitoring the effect of treatment and determining prognosis [1]. Microarray and lab-on-a-chip systems are going to fulfill these new requirements, including the miniaturization of biological assays as well as the parallelization of analysis. Although the concept has been performed by miniaturizing the analytical equipments, the technology comes from the microeletromechanical and microelectronics industries [2]. Lab-on-a-chip technology is the method of choice to integrate processes and reaction and scale them down from conventional gla ssware to microfluidics, involving micro-sized channels in glass or polymer chips [3]. DNA microarray also knows as DNA chips, comprise a new technology emerging at a tremendous pace because of its power, flexibility, sensitivity and relative simplicity [4]. BioMEMS for proteomics can be divided into LOC device for specific tasks such as protein isolation, purification, digestion, and separation; and microarray device for high throughput study of protein abundance and function. An emergence of DNA, protein microarray has emerged over the last few years with commercial potential beyond the confines of the research laboratory [5]. In this paper we start our discussion with the history of microarray; subsequently we go into the details of general techniques used in DNA and protein microarray followed by fabrication and the application and future of microarray. 2. History of Microarray Microarray technology evolved from Southern blotting, where fragmented DNA is attached to a substrate and then probed with a known gene or fragment [6]. The first reported use of this approach was the analysis of 378 arrayed lysed bacterial colonies each harboring a different sequence which were assayed in multiple replicas for expression of the genes in multiple normal and tumor tissue [7]. These early gene arrays were made by spotting cDNA onto filter paper with a pin-spotting device. The use of miniaturized microarray for gene expression profiling was first reported in 1995 [8]. This technology allowed scientists to analyze thousands of mRNAs in a single experiment to determine whether expression is different in disease state. Unfortunately, mRNA levels within a cell are often poorly correlated with actual protein abundance [9]. A complete eukaryotic genome on a microarray was published in 1997[10]. The development of biochip has a long history, starting with early work on the und erlying sensor technology. In 1953, Watson and Crick announced their discovery of now familiar double helix structure and sequencing techniques by Gilbert and Sanger in 1977 [11, 12]. Two additional developments enable the technology used in modern DNA-based biosensors. First, in 1983 Kary Mullis invented the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique, a method for amplifying DNA concentration. This discovery made possible the detection of extremely small quantities of DNA in samples. Second, in 1986 Hood and co-workers devised a method to label DNA molecules with fluorescent tags instead of radiolables, thus enabling hybridization experiments to be observed optically [13]. A big boost in research and commercial interest came in the mid 1990s, when ÃŽÂ ¼TAS (Micro Total Analysis System) technology turned out to provide interesting tooling for genomics application, like capillary electrophoresis and DNA microarray [14]. Immunoassays, the precursor to protein chips available since t he 1980s, exploit the interactions between antibodies and antigens in order to detect their concentrations in biology sample. Their creation, however, is tedious and expensive. As to this, research at Harvard University combined the technology of immunoassays and DNA microarray to develop the protein chip [15]. 3. DNA Microarrays and Fabrication 3.1 Introduction Microarray analysis allows simultaneous of gene and gene products, including DNA, mRNA and proteins. There are basically two formats: cDNA microarrays and oligonucleotide microarrays. A cDNA microarray is an orderly arrangement of DNA probe spot printed onto a solid matrix such as glass, nylon, or silicon. The substrate is usually less than 4ÃÆ'-4 cm, while the spot size is less than 250ÃŽÂ ¼m. A DNA molecular probe is tethered (embedded and immobilized) to each spot on microarray. surface modification of the substrate, such as wit poly-L-lysin or silane, facilitates adhesion of the DNA probes. Hybridization is the base pairing between target and the probe, and is limited by the sensitivity and specificity of the microarray. There are three basic types of oligonucleotide microarrays: gene expression, genotyping (SNPs), and resquencing. Genomic DNA may be used for the study of SNPs, while expressed DNA sequence (cDNA clones, expressed sequence tags or ESTs) are used for gene expre ssion [17]. 3.2 Microarrays for Gene Expression Gene expression microarrays are tools that tell how much RNA (if any) a gene is making. Since 1977, and prior to microarray, only a few genes could be studied at a time using the northern blot analysis. GeneChip (Fig. 1.1) microarrays use the natural chemical attraction, or hybridization, between DNA on the array and RNA target molecule from the sample based on complementary base pairs. Only RNA target molecule that have exact complementary base pair bind to the prob. Gene expression detection microarray is that they are able to measure tens of thousands of genes at a time, and it is this quantitative change in the scale of gene measurement that has led to a qualitative change in our ability to understand regulatory processes that occur at the cellular level. It is possible to obtain near comprehensive expression data for individual tissues or organs in various states. Compressions are possible for transcriptional activity across different tissue, and group of patients with and witho ut a particular disease or with two different diseases. Microarray studies are designed in principle to directly measure the activity of the genes involved in particular mechanism or system rather than their association with a particular biological or clinical feature [18]. Although genes may be thousand of base pairs long, it is only necessary to construct a probe of 25 bases that represent a unique complementary portion of the target gene. In other words, the short probe on the microarray measures the expression of the complete gene by sampling only a small section of the gene. In some instances, as little as one RNA molecule out of 100,000 different RNAs in an original sample may be detected [19]. Sensitivity is the ability to identify the rarely expressed transcripts in a complex background. Specification is the ability to discern between different family members. The hybridization efficiency of two nucleic acid strand depends on 1) Sequence-dependent factors for length, extent of complementarity, and overall base composition; 2) Sequence independent factors such as the concentration of the probe and target, time, temperature, cation concentration, valency character, pH, dielectric and chaotropic medica, surface characteristics of the solid, and density spacing of the probe molecules; and 3) Sample-dependent complex background signal, which are probes interacting with the wrong complementary sequence [20]. Fig 1.1 GeneChip probe microarray cartridge (Image courtesy of Affmetrix) 3.3 Microarray for SNPs Small difference in a DNA sequence can have major impact on health. Deletions, insertions, and other mutations of as little as a single base pair may result in signification disease. Identification these mutations require determining the exact sequence for thousand of SNPs distributed throughout the genome. Using microarray, it is possible to scan the whole genome and look for genetic similarities among a group of people who share the same disease. Using microarray to genotype 10,000 to 100,000 SNPs, it is possible to identify the gene or group of genes that contribute to disease. For example, if a large group of people with a given diagnosis have several SNPs in common, but not healthy people, then mutations may be looked for within those SNPs. A genotyping microarray may look for up to 100,000 SNPs or more [21]. 3.4 Fabrication DNA spotting may be accomplished by depositing PCR amplified ESTs (500-5000 base pairs), or by in suit synthesis of oligodeoxynucleotide sequences (20-50 base pairs) on the substrate. There are variety of spotting techniques that include mechanical and ink-jet style application. The GeneChip brand arrays provide high levels of reproducibility, sensitivity, and specification. The following process steps are used for fabrication of the GeneChip: 1) GeneChip probe array are manufactured through a combination of photolithography (Fig 1.2) and combinatorial chemistry. With a calculated minimum number of synthesis steps, GeneChip technology produce array with hundreds of thousands of different probes packed at an extremely high density. Small sample volumes are required for study. Manufacture is scalable because the length of the probe, not their number, determines the number of synthesis steps required. 2) Manufacturing begins with a 5-in square quartz wafer. Initially the quartz is washed to ensure uniform hydroxylation across its surface. Because quarts is naturally hydroxylated, it provides an excellent substrate for the attachment of chemical, such as linker molecules, that are later used to position the probes on the arrays. Fig 1.2 Photolithographic technique are used to locate and add nucleotides for fabrication of array of probe (Image courtesy of Affymetrix) 3) The wafer is placed in a bath of silane, which reacts with hydroxyl groups of quartz, and forms a matrix of covalently linked molecules. This distance between these silane determines the probes packing density, allowing array to hold over 500,000 probe location, or features, within a mere 1.28cm2. Each of these features harbors millions of identical DNA molecules. The silane film provides a uniform hydroxyl density to initiate probe assembly. Linker molecules, attached to the silane matrix, provide a surface that may be spatially activated by light (Fig 1.3). 4) Probe synthesis occurs in parallel, resulting in the addition of an A, C, T or G nucleotide to multiple growing chains simulataneously. To define which oligonucleotide chains will receive a nucleotide in each step, photolithographic masks, carrying 18 to 20 ÃŽÂ ¼m2 windows that corresponds to the dimensions of individual features, are placed over the coated wafer. The windows are distributed over the mask based on the desired sequence each. When the UV light is shone over the mask in the first step of synthesis, the exposed linkers become deprotected and are available for nucleotide coupling. critical to this step is the precise alignment of the mask with the wafer before each synthesis step. To ensure that this critical step is accurately completed, chrome marks on the wafer and on the mask are perfectly aligned. 5) Once the desired features have been activated, a solution containing a single type of deoxynucleotide with a removable protection group is flushed over the wafers surface. The nucleotide attaches to the activated linkers, initiating the synthesis process. 6) Although the process is highly efficient, some activated molecules fail to attach the new nucleotide. To prevent these outliers from becoming probes with missing nucleotides, a capping step is used to truncate them. In additional, the side chains of the nucleotides are protected to prevent the formation of branched oligonucleotides. Fig 1.3 GeneChip fabrication steps (Image courtesy Affmetrix). 7) In the next synthesis step, another mask is placed over the wafer to allow the next round of deprotection and coupling. The process is repeated until the probes reach their full length, usually 25 nucleotides. 8) Although each position in the sequence of an oligonucleotide can be occupied by one of four nucleotides, resulting in an apparent need for 24ÃÆ'-4, or 100, different masks per wafer, the synthesis process can be designed to significantly reduce this requirement. Algorithms that help minimize mask usage calculate how to best coordinate probe growth by adjusting synthesis rates of individual probes and identifying situations when the same mask can be multiple times. 9) Once the synthesis is completed, the wafer are deprotected and diced, and the resulting individual arrays are picked and packed in flowcell cartridges. Depending on the number of probe features per array, a single wafer can yield between 49 and 400 arrays. 10) The manufacturing process ends with a comprehensive series of quality control tests. Additional, a sampling of array from every wafer is used to test the batch by running control hybridizations. A quantitative test of hybridization is also performed using standardized control probes [22]. 3.5 Microarray Data Analysis Data filtration is performed by selecting threshold pixel intensity; and 2-, 5-, or 10- fold difference between the samples. Different genes with an identical profile may represent a coordinate response to a stimulus. Genes with opposite profiles may represent repression. To compare expression profiles it is necessary to define a set of metrics, or operations that return a value that is proportional in some way to the similarities or difference between two expression profiles. The most commonly used metrics are Euclidean distance and Pearson coefficient of correlation [23]. 3.5.1 Euclidean Distance Two or more profile of each of two genes are compared as a mathematical matrix operation of n-dimensional space, where n is the number of expression patterns available. The Euclidean distance is the square root of the summation of the difference between all pairs of corresponding values. For two genes the distance is as follows: Where d is the distance, e1 is the expression pattern of gene1, e2 is the expression pattern of gene 2, and i is the element of the expression profile: Gene1 (e11, e12, ., e1n) and gene1 (e21, e22, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.,e2n). 3.5.2 Pearson Correlation Coefficient The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) gives a value of from -1 to 1, and closer to 1 (negative and positive correlation, respectively). The closer two profiles have the same expression, the closer the value will be to 1: Where and Sen are the mean and typical deviation of all of the point of the nth profile, respectively. 4. Protein Microarray and Fabrication 4.1 Introduction Protein microarrays are becoming an important tool in proteomics, drug discovery programs, and diagnostics [24]. The amount of information obtained from small quantities of biological samples is significantly increased in the microarray format. This feature is extremely valuable in protein profiling, where samples are often limited in supply and unlike DNA, cannot be amplified [25]. Protein microarrays are more challenging to prepare than are DNA chips [26] because several technical hurdles hamper their application. The surfaces typically used with DNA are not easily adaptable to proteins, owing to the biophysical differences between the two classes of bioanalytes [27]. Arrayed protein must be immobilized in a native conformation to maintain their biological function. Unfortunately, proteins tend to unfold when immobilized onto a support so as to allow internal hydrophobic side chains to from hydrophobic bonds with the solid surface [28]. Surface chemistry, capture agents, and detect ion methods take on special significance in developing microarrays. Microarrays consist of microscopic target spots, planer substrates, rows and columns of elements, and probe molecules in solution. Each protein assessed by a microarray should be the same as the partial concentration of each protein in the biological extract [29]. The past ten years have witnessed a fascinating growth in the field of large-scale and high-throughput biology, resulting in a new era of technology development and the collection and analysis of information. The challenges ahead are to elucidate the function of every encoded gene and protein in an organism and to understand the basic cellular events mediating complex processes and those causing diseases [30-33]. Protein are more challenging to prepare for the microarray format than DNA, and protein functionality is often dependent on the state of proteins, such as post-translational modification, partnership with other proteins, protein subcellular locali zation, and reversible covalent modification (e.g. phosphorylation). Nonetheless, in recent years there have been considerable achievements in preparing microarray containing over 100 proteins and even an entire proteome [34-36]. Randox Laboratories Ltd. Launched Evidence, the first protein Biochip Array Technology analyzer in 2003. In protein Biochip Array Technology, the biochip replaces the ELISA (Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) plate or cuvette as the reaction platform. The biochip is used to simultaneously analyze a panel of related tests in a single sample, producing a patient profile. The patient profile can be used in disease screening, diagnosis, monitoring disease progression or monitoring treatment (wiki Biochip). Protein expression profiling, protein-protein binding, drug interaction, protein folding, substrate specificity, enzymatic activity, and the interaction between protein and nucleic acids are among the application of protein microarrays. Abundance-based microarray, including capture microarray and reverse-phase protein blots, measure the abundance of specific biomolecules using well defined and high specific analyte-specific reagents (ASRs). Different classes of molecules can act as capture molecules in microarray assays, including antigen-antibody, protein -protein, aptamer-ligand, enzyme-substrate, and receptor-ligand [37]. 4.2 Spotting In situ synthesis of protein microarrays as done for DNA microarrays is impractical. Other forms of delivery-based technology must be incorporated. One-drop-at-a-time (microspotting) techniques including use of pins, quills or hollow needles that repeatedly touch the substrate surface depositing one spot after the next in an array format; shooting microdroplets from a ejector similar to ink-jet printing; and depositing charged submicron-sized droplets by electrospray deposition (ESD). Alternatively, parallel techniques such as microcontact printing (ÃŽÂ ¼CP), digital ESD, and photolithographic controlled protein adsorption can be used. Currently, micospotting by robotic techniques has greater use in the research setting, whereas parallel techniques offer cost saving for mass production for commercial use [38]. 4.3 Microcontact printing (ÃŽÂ ¼CP) In microcontact printing stamps are typically made from a silicon elastomer and used to make a microarray of spots with feature size from 0.01 to 0.1ÃŽÂ ¼m. Steps for stamping include the following [38]: 1) Activation of the stamp surface to increase hydrophilicity or to introduce grups for inking to target molecules such as antibodies, protein A, or streptavidin. 2) Direct adsorption of protein molecules or their binding to capture molecules over a period of 0.5-1 hours. 3) Rinsing. 4) Drying in a nitrogen stream for about a minute. 5) Pressing the stamp against a suitable substrate for about a minute to allow transfer of the semidry materials. Disadvantages include poor control of the amount of materials transferred, small amount of deposited materials, and possible changes in protein function. Microarrays containing up three different proteins were fabricated by ÃŽÂ ¼CP technique and tested as a detection system for specific antibodies [39]. Immunoassay were successfully performed using the patterned protein microarrays, and were characterized by fluorescence microscopy and scanning- probe microscopy. The characterization revealed the quality of the protein deposition and indicated a high degree of selectivity for the targeted antigen-antibody interaction. 4.3 Electrospray Deposition (ESD) The basic physics underlying the newly emerging technique of electrospray deposition (ESD) as applied to biological macromolecules. Fabrication of protein films and microarrays are considered as the most important applications of this technology. All the major stages in the ESD process (solution electrification, formation of a cloud of charged microdroplets, transformation of microdroplets into ions and charged clusters, deposition, and neutralization) are discussed to reveal the physical processes involved, such as space charge effects, dissipation of energy upon landing and neutralization mechanisms [40]. In electrospray deposition, protein is transferred from the glass capillary positioned 130-350 ÃŽÂ ¼m above a conducting surface. Micro-sized charged droplets move in an electric field created by the difference in electric field potential between the tip and the substrate surface and by the spatial charge of the droplet cloud. The electrostatic repulsion expands the cloud, and microdroplets are deposited as a round spot. The spot density is greater at the center [38]. Two new techniques were recently developed in these laboratories for fabrication of protein microarrays: electrospray deposition of dry proteins and covalent linking of proteins from dry deposits to a dextran-grafted surface. Here we apply these techniques to simultaneously fabricate 1200 identical microarrays. Each microarray, 0.6 ÃÆ'- 0.6 mm2 in size, consists of 28 different protein antigens and allergens deposited as spots, 30à ¢Ã‹â€ ’40 ÃŽÂ ¼m in diameter. Electrospray deposition (ESD) of dry protein and covalent linking of proteins from dry deposits to a dextran-grafted surface has been studied from fabrication of microarrays. Electrospray (ES) deposition has been applied to fabricate protein microarrays for immunochemical assay. Protein antigens were deposited as arrays of dry spots on a surface of aluminized plastic. Deposition was performed from water solutions containing a 10-fold (w/w of dry protein) excess of sucrose. Upon contact with humid air, the spots tur n into microdroplets of sucrose/protein solution from which proteins were either adsorbed or covalently linked to clean or modified aluminum surfaces. It was found that covalent binding of antigens via aldehyde groups of oxidized branched dextran followed by reduction of the Schiff bonds gives the highest sensitivity and the lowest background in microarray-based ELISA, as compared to other tested methods of antigen immobilization [41]. Protein microarray with an antibody-based protein array for high-throughput immunoassay, with an ESD method using a quartz mask with holes made by an abrasive jet technique, has been performed. An antibody solution was electrosprayed onto an ITO glass, and then antibodies were deposited and cross-linked with a vapor of glutaraldehyde. The dimeters of the spots were approximately 150 ÃŽÂ ¼m. The arrays were then incubated with corresponding target antigenic molecules and washed. The captured antigens were collectively detected by fluorescence and chemiluminescence. The signals were quantitatively visualized with a high-resolution CCD [42]. 4.4 Surface immobilization In many proteomics applications, one is interested in the facile and covalent immobilization of protein molecules without the use of any special tag or chemical modification. This is most conveniently achieved via chemical reactivity towards the commonly available -NH2 groups on the surface of protein molecules. One of the most efficient leaving groups towards -NH2 is N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) attached via an ester bond. We have developed an NHS surface based on the zero background PEG coating. It allows for fast immobilization reactions with the remaining NHS groups easily washed off to expose the zero background PEG coating (Fig 1.4). In subsequent assays, the PEG functionality ensures that binding of particular molecules to the surface is only through the specific interaction with the immobilized protein molecule and the commonly seen background problem is solved without the need of a blocking step. Fig 1.4 NHS activated surfaces for the immobilization of proteins, peptides, antibodies (Image courtesy: ZeroBkg ® ) Peptide and protein microarrays fabricated on NHS/PEG/glass slides (Fig 1.5) Nanoliter droplets of peptide (21 amino-acids) or protein (fibrinogen) solution containing 10% glycerol are deposited on the glass slide with a robotic arrayer and incubated for 10 minutes. NHS-groups in remaining area are removed by a deactivating buffer for 30 minutes at room temperature. The immobilized peptide or protein on the surface is detected by incubation with the primary antibody specifically against the peptide or fibrinogen, followed by wash and incubation with cy3-conjugated secondary antibody. The glass slides are imaged on a laser scanner. The most important result is the exceptionally low background due to the PEG coating. While the NHS/PEG coated glass slides are ideal for protein, peptide, and antibody arrays, they are also useful as low background surfaces for other microarrays, such as oligonucleotides, carbohydrates, and other small molecules. The non-fouling property of the high densit y PEG coating becomes critically important when one uses such an array for the study of complex biological samples, such as plasma or serum. In order to detect molecules of low abundance, such as cancer biomarkers, one needs to minimize non-specific adsorption of other abundant biomolecules [43]. Fig 1.5 Fluorescence images of peptide (left) and protein (Fibrinogen, right) microarrays fabricated on NHS/PEG/glass slides and detected by immunostaining. The diameter of each spot is ~100 ÃŽÂ ¼m (Image courtesy: ZeroBkg ® ). 4.5 Self-assembling Protein Microarrays Molecular fabrication of SAMS depends on chemical complementarily and structural compatibility, both of which confer the weak and noncovalent interaction that bind building blocks together during self-assembly. Water-mediated hydrogen bonds are important for living system. In nature the assembly of peptide and proteins has yielded collagen, keratin, pearl, shell, coral and calcite microlenses, and optical waveguides [44]. The application of self-assembly techniques in the design of biocompatible protein microarray surfaces, immobilizing cells, and lipid layers, and spotting techniques has been reviewed by others [45-46]. 4.6 Detection Strategies Detection and readout of complex formation in each spot is performed with fluorescence, chemiluminescence, mass spectrometry, radioactivity, or electrochemistry. Label-free methods include mass spectrometry and SPR. Labeled probe methods include use of a chromogen, fluorophor, or a radioactive isotope. Direct strategies use a labeled antibody to directly bind to the target molecule immobilized on the substrate. Amplification strategies based on avidin-biotin binding enhance sensitivity. Indirect strategies use an immobilized antibody for capturing labeled, specific molecules from the sample. Sandwich assay as noted earlier require two distinct antibodies foe detection of a capture molecule. The first antibody is immobilized on the substratum, and serves to capture the molecule of interest. A second labeled antibody then binds to the first complex allowing detection [47]. 5. Application of Microarray Ever since the first 1000 probe DNA microarray was reported over a decade ago [48], great strides have been made in both quantitative and qualitative applications. Today, a standard DNA chip contains up to 6.5 million spots and can encompass entire eukaryotic genomes. A plethora of alternative applications are continually reported, albeit at various stages of maturity. What was once seen solely as a transcript profiling technology has now emerged as a reliable format for genotyping, splice variant analysis, exon identification, ChIP-on-chip, comparative genomic hybridization (CGH), resequencing, gene synthesis, RNA/RNAi synthesis and onchip translation [49]. Perhaps the most exciting recent developments from a drug discovery perspective come from the integration of diverse technological innovations into microarray-based solutions, especially for other classes of molecular entity. From small molecules (e.g. metabolites, nucleotides, amino acids, sugars) to oligomeric and polymeric der ivatives thereof, microarrays are now allowing us to examine the intra-class (e.g. protein-protein) and inter-class (e.g. protein: small molecule) interactions of these bio-system components on a systems-wide level. Yet, despite the appearance of a diversity of microarray types (e.g. Small Molecule Microarrays (SMMs) [51], Protein-Nucleic acid (PNA) microarrays [52], Glyco-chips [53], peptide chips [54], antibody chips [55], cell and tissue microarrays [56]), each differs in their relative contribution to the Voltaire challenge. Certainly the foremost of such opportunities are thos
The relationship between board diversity and firm performance
The relationship between board diversity and firm performance The Research Questions In the course of their research on the Demographic Diversity in the Boardroom, Miller and Triana sought to answers the questions bothering on the relationship between board diversity and firm performance using mediating variables reputation and innovation and how board diversity impact firm performance using mediating variables of innovation and reputation. Theoretical Framework Underpinning the Study There are two theories underpinning the study and these are: the Behavioural Theory and the Signaling Theory (Miller and Triana 2009). The behavioural theory as proposed by Cyert and March (cited in Miller and Triana, 2009) suggests that there is a direct correlation between the availability and use of information in a decision-making process and innovation in a groups decision. In other words, the more the information available, the better the decision making process will be which leads to creativity. Arthurs, Busenitz, Hoskisson and Johnson (2008) view signaling as a way of bringing to notice the innate worth or value of a firm and that any signal must be noticeable and hard to emulate or replicate. The Signaling Theory posits that firms use visible signals to gain reputation and status among the public (Miller and Triana 2009: 756). Methodology In testing their hypotheses, Miller and Triana presented three sets of variables: independent variables, dependent variables and control variables. The independent variables which were board diversity, innovation and firm reputation were investigated using Blaus index (1977) of heterogeneity, Research and development expenses as proxies and 2004 Fortune Corporate Reputation Survey accordingly. The dependent variable; Firm Performance was measured using and Return on investment and Return on sales and finally, Control variables which as key components were vital to the research and they were firm age, liquidity, size, product and international diversification. The research explored the empirical link between these variables and four hundred and thirty two Fortune 500 firms which were selected in investigating innovation as mediating factor between board diversity and firm performance and also three hundred and twenty six Fortune 1000 firms which were selected to investigate reputation as mediating factor between board diversity and firm performance. The result from the test of the various hypotheses was then analysed using the Least Squares (OLS) Regression (pg 768). The methods of research were disputable and therefore open to further research due to two noticeable reasons. First, the inconsistency and ambiguity in the selected year of assessment. The research explored the empirical linkage of board diversity, reputation, innovation, and performance (pg 765) but did not specify a year or period of assessment for which they gathered their data. Example, sample of firms selected were for year 2003, measurement of board diversity was for year 2002, measurement of innovation using research and development expenses were for year 2003, measurement of reputation were for 2003 and finally firm performance is measured in 2005, lagged two years to allow time for mediating effects of reputation and innovation to occur (pg 767). The effect of this inconsistency is that it would be difficult to know the accuracy of result arrived at. Rather it would have been a lot of easier if the various data gathered were being assessed for a period of time e.g. data betw een years 2002 and 2005 to ensure uniformity in the assessment. Secondly the sample of Fortune 500 firms chosen were because these firms represent leaders in their industryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.had external reports listing the race of board members as a way of validating data (pg 765) but no mention was made on a report of gender of board members. Result The answer to question bothering on the relationship between board diversity and firm performance using mediating variables reputation and innovation was striking as the authors were of the opinion that increasing diversity on the board leads to more varied ideas, perspectives and networks (Miller and Triana 2009:764). In other words, in a multitude of opinions as a result of diversity, cogent and innovative ideas usually emanate. This view is supported by Hillman, Cannella and Harris (2001) where they reasoned that each director is unique and different and when all their skills and proficiencies are put together, various ideas spring forth which could enhance firms performance. However, Adams and Ferreira (2008:305) argue that the more dissimilar directors are, the more they could disagree and the more conflict there could be on the board which could eventually impede firms performance. The result for the question on how board diversity impact firm performance using mediating variables: innovation and reputation proved arguable as the authors posits having a gender and racially diverse board signals that the firm is well positioned to meet the needs of a diverse market (Miller and Triana 2009: 762) but from the test of their hypotheses, it was discovered that there was no correlation between gender diversity and reputation (pg 775). This could have been as a result of the method of research which could have led to a biased opinion. Dalton and Dalton (2010) observed that there has been a lot of criticism and reservation due to the presence and achievement of women on Fortune 500 boards. This shows that generally the opinion that women can hold positions of top management is still not been accepted by multitudes. However, Krishnan and Park (2004) argued that the presence of women as leaders is usually appreciated in an environment that calls for a lot public relations and that they are able to break grounds in an otherwise impossible situation due the emotional side of their personality which results in them working with a lot of passion. Conclusion The research was interesting as it provided the first empirical analysis of the correlation between boardroom diversity and firm performance using innovation and reputation as mediators. However, the research involved the use of secondary data i.e. data collected by someone else and most likely be subject to sample limitations (Anonymous 2008). This could infer that data collected were collated originally for a different purpose and therefore be biased. Also the research highlights that diversity using mediating factors innovation and reputation has benefits as Cox and Blake (1991:45) reasoned that a well managed, diverse workforce (board) holds potential competitive advantages for organizations but for it to be fruitful and effective, it comes with a price and firms have to be able to look at their structures and be guided in their cultural needs; either gender or racial and be able to discern between what is needful or unnecessary as Slater, Weigand and Zwirlein (2008) argued that achieving productive diversity is not easy and that diversity if not managed properly usually leads to a high level of turnover. Therefore, based on all the information gathered and analysis carried out, would it be ideal to say that board diversity positively impacts firm performance?
Sunday, August 4, 2019
The Effect of the Monsoon on the Indian Society in Cochin, Kerala :: Monsoon India Society Culture Essays Papers
The Effect of the Monsoon on the Indian Society in Cochin, Kerala The monsoon holds the power to promote or devastate India ’s economy. Indeed, India has the potential to be a lot more prosperous were it not for the fickleness of the monsoon. â€Å"Floods, drought, famine, and poverty continue to drag her down each times she seems ready to spread wings of prosperity and fly towards a brighter future full of richer harvests.†1 Sometime from the end of May to about the second week of June the southwest monsoon will arrive, if it arrives. Its time of arrival is not very predictable, nor is its duration or intensity, all of which can have significant impacts on an agriculturally based society. When the monsoon rain clouds reach the coast of south western India, they rise so quickly over the Western Ghats, an abrupt 1,500 mile escarpment, that they lose much of their moisture in Kerala (our area of study) before blowing across the rest of the peninsula and inland.2 Approximately 67% of the population depends on agriculture for a livelihood (forestry and fishing included).3 Major crops of Cochin and the surrounding area include coconuts, rubber, and rice. The monsoon rains are absolutely essential for crops to grow. The economy has been called a â€Å"gamble in rains†because the rain from the monsoon fills reservoirs, tanks, rivers, and irrigation canals with water that must last until the monsoon retur ns in the next year.4 Approximately 90% of India ’s annual water supply is brought by the monsoon.5 When the monsoon season is good, the government tries to establish buffer stocks against the catastrophe of monsoon failure. If the monsoon fails for two or three successive years however, no proactive measures can be sufficient.6 Another gamble the farmers make is with the timing of the monsoon. Crops are planted in March and April during the dry, hot season, and are harvested in November during the retreating northeast monsoon. Some crops such as coconuts need a certain amount of rain at a certain time. If the monsoon is late they will dry up and the harvest is lost.7 According to Cochin native, Joerose Tharakan, the irregularity of the arrival of the monsoon can have significant influences on the morale of the society. When the monsoon is late the farmers have a tendency to get vexed. Despite the fact that it obviously will do no good, they often go on strike.
Saturday, August 3, 2019
The New York Crystal Palace Essay -- Architecture History
Missing image The New York Crystal Palace: The End of an Era So bursts a bubble rather noteworthy in the annals of New York. To be accurate, the bubble burst some years ago, and this catastrophe merely annihilates the apparatus that generated it. -George Templeton Strong It is unfortunate that the wonderful lithographs in our collection which depict the burning of the New York Crystal Palace are not in this online exhibition. They include a color lithograph by Currier & Ives which truly captures the excitement and confusion of that fateful night. However, the bird's eye view of the New York Crystal Palace exhibited here does justice to this amazing structure. The lithograph by Frank Leslie shows the extensive use of glass panes for which both the London and New York Crystal Palaces were given their names. It also shows the throngs of people that must have visited the New York Crystal Palace during the Exhibition, even though they were not numerous enough to make the building profitable for investors. The lithograph duplicated on this web site is about 20 x 13 inches. One is able to see the details much more clearly by viewing the original itself. As opposed to those lithographs which showed only a building with no background and no people, this image shows not only the city behind the Palace, but also the city within the Palace. In the background, one can see the various modes of transportation that visitors must have used to get to the Exhibition. The railroad runs across the top of the image, with a train in the upper left. Sailboats and steamboats move along the river, and horse-drawn carriages pull up to the front gates, unloading passengers into the crowd. The buildings behind the Palace fade away, but t... ...nd 2,000 people were in the building, but they were all evacuated in time by a heroic fire department that put saving life ahead of saving merchandise. Having been constructed almost entirely of iron and glass, with only a little wood near its base, and having been called "fireproof" at the time of its construction, the Palace faced the same sort of irony which the "unsinkable" Titanic faced in 1912. The enormous building burnt to the ground in less than half an hour. The building itself, though no longer standing, remains one of America's first and most interesting examples of glass and iron architecture. The exhibits of industrial and artistic objects, whether huge steam-powered machines, intricately decorated home furnishings, or marble statues, attested to the high degree of invention and skill that characterized the artistic expressions of ante-bellum culture.
Friday, August 2, 2019
International Foundation Year Macroeconomics Essay
Question 2a) Explain the meaning of the term ‘inflation’. Along with the development of society more and more problems are brought to our attention, one of which is that ‘inflation’. Nevertheless, with the advance of the human civilization, the living standard increases gradually so the price index and Retail Price Index (RPI) rise gradually as well. Deep down, ‘inflation’ means a persistent increase in all money prices over a period of time which is generally considered to bring costs to society is the form of material, political and psychological costs. Also, the increase must be sustained at some rate before there is inflation and when the price level increases steadily over time. ‘Inflation’ that is to say, it is decrease in the purchasing power and all money prices to the same extent. In economic, inflation is measured as a percentage change in the PRI over a given period of time, for example, if the RPI increases from 100 to 200 in a year, then inflation is said to have increased by 20% that year. In the UK, the Retail Prices Index is most commonly used measure of inflation. Because RPI is measure the cost of living index, it can reflex the money price level such as through the changes in the prices of goods in the shops by households. From the figure 1 illustrate, which show the inflation from 1.9 per cent in 2001 to 3.2 per cent in 2003. Obviously, the inflation rate in UK has increased 1.3 per cent from 2001 to 2003 under the RPI. Nevertheless, in the USA, the Consumer Prices Index (CPI) is usually used to measure of inflation. In addition, GDP deflator can measure the average level of prices as well. Definitely, inflation is either great or slight fluctuation in each year. In economic, creeping inflation and hyperinflation are represent inflation as well. Actually, hyperinflation similarly as inflation but the meaning is quiet difference. Hyperinflation means extremely rapid inflation and the price increase so fast that money largely loses its convenience as a medium of exchange. However, creeping inflation is at moderate rates but persevering over long period. Annual Inflation Rates in UK – 12 month % change Figure 1: Source: Office for National Statistics To avoid inflation and low inflation, this is a Macroeconomic Policy’s objective for a long time. This policy tries to affect the overall performance of the economy. In fact, people have an aversion to inflation. Due to inflation would cause costs of inflation and a number of influences, for instance, redistributions effects, uncertainty possible harming for long-term investment reduces the welfare of people, inflation tax, Balance of Payment, unemployment, damage a country’s competitiveness and create menu costs. Inflation indeed is a positive rate of growth of the general level and it is closely related to the unemployment. Question 2b) Distinguish between demand-pull and cost-push inflation. In economics, demand-pull and cost-push inflation are completely difference. Moreover, they are played a principal role in each nation economic as well. Demand-pull inflation is contrasted with cost-push inflation. Demand-pull inflation means the price increase is transmitted from one sector to another but cost-push inflation means the wage increase is transmitted from one sector to another. Actually, demand-pull inflation describes how inflation starts and cost-push inflation describes why inflation once begun is so difficult to stop. Fist of all, demand-pull inflation is also call demand inflation. It exist is due to excess demand. It means that the resources are not completely sufficient the different regions and sectors of the economy. Demand inflation means the higher aggregate level of activity, the large proportion of areas and industries which experience excess demand for goods and labors of various sorts. Generally, we can know that increase in aggregate demand will cause higher prices and it bring to the society of cost inflation as well. However, cost-push inflation is reverse of demand-pull inflation. Cost inflation is due to increase the factor input cost such as imported goods and raw materials so that cause to raise the prices or wage rates round the economy. Basically, the costs increase would cause the manufacturer to raise prices, soon afterwards, increases in prices cause workers to demand higher wages as well. So the cumulative effect of all these processes cause of passed on in higher prices to consumers and the cost-push inflation is extremely difficult to stop finally. Question 2c) Suggest how a government might tackle inflation. In economics, there are four ways of dealing with inflation. Fist, government can adopt tough incomes policies to keep inflation under control. Second, government can through institutional and constitutional reform to tackle inflation like as fiscal and monetary policies. Third, government can adopt indexing deal with inflation as well. One of the suggestion might tackle inflation is incomes policies. The aim of incomes policy is the attempt to influence wages and other incomes directly. The methods included jawboning, wage-price guideposts, wage-price controls and tax-based incomes policy. Generally, jawboning means the government uses verbal admonitions against those who want to raise the prices of their products. For example, the supermarket in UK cannot increase the prices for all of goods under the government use verbal admonitions against. In addition, wage-price guideposts can restrain the inflation similarly, the government may set up standards for permissible wage and price increase for the private sector to follow. For example, the government may intentionally reduce the wage increase for civil servants so that encourage other employers to control wage increase as well. It can curb inflation efficiently. Moreover, the government can use tax-based incomes policy such as allow the private sector lower taxes for who follow the guideposts and rise taxes for those who violate them. Furthermore, the government may use wage-price controls or freezes may lead to non-price competition. Basically, the government use of wage and price controls can keep prices and wages below their equilibrium levels. From the above, there are a number of goods suggestions for tackle inflation in income policies for the government. On the other hand, the government may change laws and institutions to make it hard for inflation to emerge. Actually, this way takes a long run view because it is not to concern with the temporary costs of first getting inflation down. Nevertheless, the objective is control how to keep inflation down. So the government can through controlling the Central Bank to pass a law permanently restricting the rate of nominal money growth to. Obviously, once the Central Bank going to rise in interest rates, the aggregate demand going to down naturally. After that, the inflation rate can be controlled finally. In addition, unemployment get a closely relationship with inflation, government can adopt the fiscal and monetary policies to curb inflation at the cost of higher unemployment. As we know, once the country have a higher inflation rate so that lower unemployment rate will be accompanied. Conversely, once the country have higher unemployment rate, the lower inflation will be emerged. But this trade-off focuses attention on aggregate demand and disregards aggregate supply. From figure 2c, which express the price level decrease from P1 to P2 due to the Central Bank increase in interest rates, there is evidence that once increase in interest rates would cause to decrease the aggregate demand as well. To put it more simply, there is also indication that rise in interest rates may exert a downward pressure on prices. Figure 2c: A rise in the rate of interest effect. Third, the government can adopt indexing to tackle inflation. Whereas indexation might automatically adjusts nominal contracts for the effects of inflation, any unanticipated inflation and inflation effect can be tackled. For instance, wage rates, pensions, interest payments on bonds, income taxes and many other things can be indexed in this way. Indeed, the purpose of indexing is to reduce the social cost of inflation. However, everything has a good side and a bad side, and indexing is no exception. Some economists worry about that people would diminish the confidence combating inflation even all prices and terms in contracts will be adjusted according to the price index. Historically, indexation has already been introduced in countries that have had to live with inflation rates of 30 or 40 per cent for years. Finally, there are many ways might tackle inflation for government. Income policies, institutional and constitutional reform with fiscal and monetary policies and indexing are the process to tackle inflation efficiently.
Thursday, August 1, 2019
The Iroquois Confederacy to Six Nations
Northern Kentucky University The Iroquois Confederacy to Six Nations Thesis: Examine how the Seneca, Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, and Cayuga, and the 1722 addition of the Tuscarora, resulted in the Iroquois Confederacy or Six Nations and their influence on the creation of the Constitution. Nicole Cushingberry Cultural Anthropology Michael Striker December 16, 2011 Nicole Cushingberry Instructor: Michael Striker Anthropology 100 The Iroquois: Confederacy to Six NationsThe Iroquois Confederacy, also known as Five Nations or Six Nations after the 1720 inclusion of the Tuscarora, was a collective of tribes that occupied the upper region of New York state around Lake Ontario, Pennsylvania, and Southern Ontario and Quebec. The term Iroquois is an English deviation from a French deviation of an offensive Algonkian (group of Native American Indian languages used from South Carolina to Labrador, Canada and west to the Great Plains) term for â€Å"real snakes†.Originally, the members of th e confederacy described themselves as Kanonsionni (compound word – kanonsa meaning â€Å"house†and â€Å"ionni†meaning extended) or â€Å"people of the longhouse†whereas today the term Haudenosaunee is used which translates to â€Å"people building an extended house†. The literal meaning of these terms describes the housing arrangement of the Iroquois – a dwelling typically 60 feet long (as large as 300 feet long) constructed of young, bendable trees, covered with bark.Historically and by native traditions, Dekanawidah, a Huron tribe member and shaman, is credited with creating the Great Law of the Iroquois Confederacy, also known as The Great Law of Peace, between the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The Great Law of the Iroquois was communicated orally, believed to be one of the earliest collections of governing principles equivalent to the constitution, and was utilized as a justice system to be applied to tribe members by their chie fs.Chief Hiawatha, an Onondaga living amongst a Mohawk tribe and an equivalent to a modern day politician, was persuaded by Dekanawidah to teach The Great Law of the Iroquois in hopes of eliminating the ongoing conflicts between the tribes resulting in the raiding of villages to obtain captives, retaliation, and murder. Dekanawidah also hoped that by uniting the Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, and Seneca, they would be able to defend themselves against European invasion. Tribal SocietySeveral tribes of the Northeast region spoke the Iroquois language but not all of them were members of the confederacy (at left, map shows the tribes and regions in New York State; the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Confederacy is shown in red). The Five Nations, was formed when the Cayuga, Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, and Seneca agreed to abide by the principles of The Great Law of the Iroquois Confederacy; Six Nations was created when the Tuscaroa, a tribe from North Carolina, Requested admittance into the confederacy to gain protection from European colonization oreover, enslavement. The Six Nations of the confederacy is comprised of clan groups of matrilineal descent, with members being part of the mother’s family (all members of each clan were related to other clans via the mothers) automatically at birth and will remain as such for their lifetime. Family kinship was determined by bifurcate merging, with unilineal descent. The Iroquois were matrilocal; when a man was selected as being worthy to join their longhouse as a husband by the elder women, after marriage, the couple resided in the longhouse of woman’s birth.Though women were in the position of power commonly held by men, they did not dominate the society. The most senior woman lead her clan and was charged with the naming of children, working her advisors to elect a chief to represent the clan and remove him if he did not meet his obligations, food production and distribution, making clothing, participating in medicinal groups, and as a pastime, took part in gambling. Men were responsible for hunting, managing military tasks, fighting in wars, and acting as a representative, if selected, of his longhouse.The Iroquois mode of subsistence was agriculturally based society, which their staple crops being corn, squash, and beans. Their diet was enhanced by gathering fruit, roots, and nuts some of which was often dried for later use. During hunting season, the men trapped squirrels, rabbits, beaver and hunted bears and deer. They traded goods such as pipes, beaded clothing, furs, and food items. Religion consisted in devotion to â€Å"The Great Spirit†, creator of the world. All things in the Iroquois existence were taken care of by the spirits of the trees, plants, wind, rain, and other aspects of nature.They believed that a world of supernatural powers existed, with both good and evil entities and felt these spirits could alter the course of their lives. The religious specialists of t he Iroquois were known as the â€Å"Keepers of the Faith†and were male or female and held the position part-time. The keepers were selected by the elders and were tasked with arranging and conducting religious ceremonies, such as funerals or fighting illness and disease. Constitutional Influence The main authors of the Constitution of the United States, Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, were highly influence and inspired by the principles of the Six Nations.Iroquois chiefs were invited to the Continental Congress Hall where on June 11, 1776, the focus of discussion was on the topic of independence. The chiefs presented a speech that detailed an on-going friendship between the Iroquois and the new Americans, and this relationship would only continue if both groups acted â€Å"as one people, and have one heart†. There are many similarities between the constitution and the principles of the Iroquois. Researchers Vine Deloraia, Bruce Johnson, and Donald Grind have f ound that the very foundation of both sets of principles mirror each ther (Johansen 1998:79): life, liberty, and happiness (Declaration of Independence); government by reason and consent rather than coercion (Albany Plan and Articles of Confederation); religious tolerance (and ultimately religious acceptance) instead of a state church; checks and balances; federalism (U. S. Constitution); and relative equality of property, equal rights before the law, and the thorny problem of creating a government that can rule equitably across a broad geographic expanse (Bill of Rights of the United States Constitution). Native America had a substantial role in shaping all of these ideas. Payne 1996:607, quoting Grinde and Johansen, Exemplars of Liberty, xx) Further, Johansen found that Franklin was using quotes from the Onondaga and advising Americans in their ill feeling towards England: Our wise ancestors established union and amity between the five nations. This has made us formidable. This ha s given us great weight and authority with our neighboring nations. We are a powerful Confederacy, and by your observing the same methods our wise ancestors have taken you will acquire much strength and power; therefore, whatever befalls you, do not fall out with one another. Johansen 1998:8) In closing, to think that the Constitution of the United States is based upon the life principles of a group of people once thought to be savages, is both a revelation and a disappointment. It is truly amazing that some many people with a common language can come together as one group for the benefits of all – socially, economically, and for the protection against a common enemy. The people of the Six Nations lived lives based on survival rather than greed by our current day definition.However, what I find disappointing and disheartening, is the fact that we as Americans came to this country to escape oppression from the crown. Yet upon arrival in this new land, we turn and do the simila r oppressive acts to the Native Americans. We called them savages and treated them as if they occupied a status lower than animals, yet we base the very document that makes use Americans on their life principles. A statement by issued during a discussion at Albany Franklin summarizes my point of view: â€Å"It would be a strange thing†¦ f Six Nations of ignorant savages should be capable of forming such a union and be able to execute it in such a manner that it has subsisted ages and appears indissoluble, and yet that a like union should be impractical for ten or a dozen English colonies, to whom it is more necessary and must be more advantageous, and who cannot be supposed to want an equal understanding of their interest. †Works Cited Daly, Janet. â€Å"Iroquois constitution united states. †IPOAA Magazine. Social Science Journal, n. d. Web. 19 Nov. 2011. . Hale, Horatio. â€Å"Iroquois Book of Rites Index. Internet Sacred Text Archive Home. N. p. , n. d. Web. 16 Dec. 2011. . â€Å"Iroquois Confederacy (American Indian confederation)  Britannica Online Encyclopedia. †Encyclopedia – Britannica Online Encyclopedia. N. p. , n. d. Web. 19 Nov. 2011. . Kahionhes Fadden, John. â€Å"Chp 8: A New Chapter, Images of native America in the writings of Franklin, Jefferson, and Paine, â€Å"Exemplar Of Liberty†. †rat haus reality, ratical branch. N. p. , n. d. Web. 14 Dec. 2011. . Malinowski, Sharon, Anna J. Sheets, and Linda Schmittroth. UA†¢XA†¢L encyclopedia of Native American tribes.Detroit: UA†¢XA†¢L, 1999. Print. Myers, Merlin G.. Households and families of the Longhouse Iroquois at Six Nations Reserve. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press in cooperation with the American Indian Studies Research Institute, Indiana University, Bloomington, 2006. Print. â€Å"New York Indian Tribes and Languages. †Native American Language Net: Preserving and promoting indigenous American Indian la nguages. N. p. , n. d. Web. 16 Dec. 2011. . â€Å"Understanding Haudenosaunee Culture-1. †Syracuse Peace Council. N. p. , n. d. Web. 16 Dec. 2011. .
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